An Inventory of Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of the National Veterinary Research Institute Vom, Plateau State, Nigeria

Introduction

In developing countries, traditional medicinal practices are still commonly used for primary healthcare, with 80% of the world's population reported to use traditional medicine by the World Health Organization [1-3]. Medicinal plants are classified into three categories, namely traditional medicinal plants, modern medicinal plants, and potential medicinal plants, based on their usage and scientific validation [4,5]. Traditional medicinal plants refer to plant species that have been used for medicinal purposes for centuries, and their efficacy is based on traditional knowledge and practices. Modern medicinal plants have been scientifically studied and proven to contain bioactive compounds with medicinal properties, and potential medicinal plants are those that are believed to have bioactive compounds that may possess medicinal properties but require further research and testing to validate their therapeutic potential [6,7]. The use of plants for medicinal purposes dates back to ancient times, but the exploitation of plant resources for various uses has led to the extinction of several plant species due to deforestation and lack of knowledge regarding their importance [8]. The loss of plant genetic resources due to exploitation and deforestation poses a threat to food security. Although the use of medicinal plants is still prevalent in Nigeria, proper identification of these plants is crucial as misidentification can result in poisoning [9]. In Nigeria, medicinal plants are commonly used, and natural remedies are preferred over synthetic ones. However, the loss of plant genetic resources due to exploitation and deforestation poses a threat to food security. Wild plants offer a natural source of herbal remedies, but proper identification is essential to avoid poisoning [9]. The National Veterinary Research Institute (NVRI) , is a potential location for medicinal plants that has not been extensively studied. Therefore, this study aims to identify the types of medicinal plants present in this location and document the knowledge of poisonous plants. Field guides and textbooks such as those by Akobundu and Agyakawa, Arbonnier, Kurian, and Kurian provide valuable plant names, descriptions, and other educative information for researchers and can be useful tools for teaching purposes [10-13]. This study is necessary to conserve traditional medicinal plants and to add to the knowledge already gathered about medicinal plants in the area systematically. The findings of this study can aid researchers working on medicinal plants found in this environment and contribute to the inventory of medicinal plants in this area for conservation purposes. Furthermore, the study seeks to document the knowledge of poisonous plants in the area, which can be useful for public health and safety. This research study focuses on a case study of the medicinal plant biodiversity identified at NVRI.

Materials and Methods

Study Area

The study was conducted in Vom town, situated in central Nigeria on the Jos Plateau, near the source of the Kaduna River, approximately 18 miles (29 km) southwest of Jos town. Vom is home to the National Veterinary Research Institute (NVRI), established in 1924, and Western Africa's first veterinary school, established in 1942.

Sampling

The study area was divided into four blocks: the Administrative block, the Junior staff quarters block, the Senior staff quarters block, and the National Institute of Trypanosomiasis Research (NITR) environment block. The plants within these blocks (figure 3 and figure 4) were identified through a field survey. Android phones equipped with Google lens and GPS were used to capture the coordinates of the plants. The National Veterinary Research Institute is located in Jos South Local Government Area of Plateau State (figure 1)

Figure 1: The map of Plateau State showing the study site – National Veterinary Research Institute in Vom, Jos South Local Government Area.

Figure 2: Family distribution of medicinal plants found in NVRI, Vom.

Figure 3: Google earth Geographical positioning of some plants in the NVRI premises.

Figure 4: Google earth geographical positioning of other plants identified in the NVRI premises.

Data Collection

The medicinal plants within the study area were identified using Android phones equipped with Google lens (https://lens. google.com/). The plants were photographed and matched with those in the phone's plant identification app. Local names of the medicinal plants were identified through the knowledge of the local community and traditional practitioners. The scientific names were identified using photographs, herbaria, and references [14,15]. Digital images of the plants were also obtained for further research and documentation purposes. GPS was used to record the coordinates of the medicinal plants [16] .

Results and Discussion

Figure 2 shows the distribution of medicinal plants within the NVRI (National Veterinary Research Institute) in Vom, Nigeria, organized by family. The graph contains information on the number of medicinal plants found in each family, ranging from 1 to 17. The total number of plant families listed in the table (table 1) is 41. The family with the highest number of occurrence of medicinal plants is Fabaceae with 17 plants, followed by Euphorbiaceous with 11 plants, and then Lamiaceae with 6 plants. These three families combined account for more than half of the total number of medicinal plants found in the NVRI. Other families with a significant number of medicinal plants include Apocynaceae, Myrtaceae, Asteraceae, and Amaranthaceae. The importance of these plant families lies in the fact that they contain a high number of medicinal plants, which could potentially be useful for human and animal health.

Fabaceae, for example, is known to contain compounds that have anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anti-cancer properties, among others [17]. Euphorbiaceae is also known for its medicinal properties, including its use in the treatment of skin diseases and as an analgesic [18]. Lamiaceae, on the other hand, is known for its use in the treatment of respiratory and digestive disorders, as well as its antimicrobial properties [19]. Amaranthaceae plants are known to possess antidiabetic, antihypertensive, antioxidant, and anticancer properties. Chenopodium album, a member of this family, has been used to treat diabetes and high blood pressure [20]. The Apocynaceae plants are known to possess antitumor, antimalarial, and anti-inflammatory properties. Catharanthus roseus, a member of this family, has been used to treat cancer, malaria, and diabetes [21]. Asteraceae plants are known to possess antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. Artemisia annua, a member of this family, has been used to treat malaria, diabetes, and inflammation [22].

Table 1: Displays the Inventory of Medicinal Plant Species Identified within the Nvri Environment, Their Scientific Names, Families, Local Names, Common Names, Habitats (Gps Coordinates) And Toxicity Status.

The study revealed a total of 98 plant species belonging to 41 families. The most common families among them were the Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Lamiaceae, Apocynaceae, Myrtaceae, Asteraceae, Amaranthaceae, and Moraceae. The largest proportion of medicinal plant species belong to the families Fabaceae (17%), Euphorbiaceae (11%), Lamiaceae (6%), Asteraceae (4%), Apocynaceae (4%), Myrtaceae (4%), and Moraceae (3%) in decreasing order of frequency.

It is noteworthy that most of the plant species listed in Table 1 are believed to be non-toxic and have various medicinal uses. They can be used to cure a range of ailments depending on their preparation and administration. The identification of these plants and their medicinal properties can be useful in the development of traditional medicines and the promotion of their sustainable use. A number of plant species similar to the ones found in the National Veterinary Research Institute (NVRI) (figure 3 and figure 4) environment have been identified and documented by various authors, including Akobundu and Agyakawa, Arbonnier, Kurian, and Kurian [10-13]. Among these plant species, the Fabaceae family has the highest number of species with 17 plants. This family is ranked third in terms of species richness at a global level after Asteraceae and Orchidaceae [23]. Fabaceae species are known for their various uses, including as a source of food and dietary protein, such as Glycine max, Phaseolus, Pisum sativum, and Arachis hypogaea [24]. Moreover, Fabaceae is the second largest family of medicinal plants, with about 490 species recorded to have medicinal properties [25].

In addition to Fabaceae, other plant species found in the NVRI environment, such as Euphorbia heterophylla, E. hirta, and Tridax procumbens, have potential as sources of useful drugs due to their rich phytochemical constituents, including phlobatannins, cardiac glycosides, steroids, and tannins [26]. It is important to conduct inventories of plants with therapeutic value and document the knowledge related to their use in systematic studies. These studies can have various benefits for society, such as conserving traditional knowledge, identifying plants with market potential that can generate income for local communities, and enhancing confidence and appreciation of herbal medicines among local communities [27,28] .

The conservation and sustainable use of plant species with potential medicinal and economic value require their identification and documentation [27,28]. This approach not only helps to preserve traditional knowledge but also promotes the appreciation of the value of plant resources among local communities. The identified plant species can be used in the development of traditional medicines to provide significant healthcare to society. Several studies have documented the therapeutic properties of some of the plant species found in the NVRI environment, highlighting the importance of documenting their medicinal properties [10-13]. The documentation of plant species with potential medicinal and economic value is crucial for their conservation and sustainable utilization, as well as for the preservation of traditional knowledge and the promotion of their value among local communities [27,28].

Conclusion

The use of traditional medicinal plants is still prevalent in Nigeria, and it is an essential part of primary healthcare. This study aimed to identify the types of medicinal plants present in the National Veterinary Research Institute (NVRI) in Vom Town, Nigeria, and document the knowledge of poisonous plants. The study was divided into four blocks: the Administrative block, the Junior staff quarters block, the Senior staff quarters block, and the National Institute for Trypanosomiasis Research (NITR) environment block, and the plants within these blocks were identified through a field survey using Android phones equipped with Google lens and GPS. The results showed that the Fabaceae family had the highest number of medicinal plants, followed by Euphorbiaceae and Lamiaceae. The importance of these plant families lies in the fact that they contain a high number of medicinal plants, which could potentially be useful for human health. Proper identification of these plants is crucial as misidentification can result in poisoning. This study is not only important for conservation purposes but also for public health and safety. The findings of this study can aid researchers working on medicinal plants found in this environment and contribute to the inventory of medicinal plants in this area for conservation purposes.

Data Availability

The datasets generated and analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to the organization (National Veterinary Research Institute, Vom) did not permit the release of the data.

References

1. Omwenga, E. O., Hensel, O., Shitandi, A., Goycoolea,F. M., Hattendorff, J. (2015). Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used in the treatment of human and livestock health problems in Mandera County, Kenya. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 175, 522-535.
2. Aziz MA, Rahman MM, Hossain MM, Al-Mamun MA, Khatun F, Hossain MS, Sarker SD. (2020). Medicinal plants used in traditional medicine by the people of Khagrachari district, Bangladesh. Heliyon, 6(10).
3. Perrino, E. V., Ndanuko, R., Kaur, G., Alqahtani, S., Sangster, T., Cheema, B. S. (2021). Traditional medicine: A review of its use, safety, and efficacy. Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine, 11(1), 1-14.
4. Rahayn, M., Foster, S., Hudson, J. (2006). Potentially useful medicinal plants of the Pacific Northwest. Journal of Natural Products, 69(3), 476-480.
5. Zuhud, E. A. M., Hikmat, A. (2009). Potential medicinal plants and their uses in Indonesia. Asian Journal of Plant Sciences, 8(5), 381-388.
6. Mukherjee, P. K., Harwansh, R. K., Bahadur, S., Banerjee, S., Kar, A., Chanda, J. (2011). Potential medicinal plants for CNS disorders: an overview. Phytotherapy Research, 25(3), 321-334.
7. Farnsworth, N. R., Akerele, O., Bingel, A. S., Soejarto, D. D., & Guo, Z. (1985). Medicinal plants in therapy. Bulletin of the world health organization, 63(6), 965.
8. Chevallier, A. (1996). The encyclopedia of medicinal plants.
9. Kadiri, A. (2008). Medicinal plants and natural products used in treatment of cancer in Nigeria. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 2(5), 86-91.
10. Akobundu, I. O., & Agyakwa, C. W. (1987). A handbook of West African weeds. IITA.
11. Arbonnier, M. (2004). Trees, shrubs and lianas of West African dry zones. Trees, Shrubs and Lianas of West African Dry Zones, 1-574.
12. Kurian, N. K. (2016a). Handbook of medicinal plants. Springer India.
13. Kurian, N. K, (2016b). Medicinal plants and their utilization. Springer India.
14. Paton, A., Brummitt, N. (2016). Plant identification: easy or difficult?. Journal of Natural Science Education, 45(1), 6-11.
15. Stafleu, F. A. (2018). The identity and typification of some botanical names. Taxon, 67(1), 148-156.
16. Kurniawan, Y., Imansari, F. (2018). The application of global positioning system (GPS) technology in the collection of medicinal plant specimens. International Journal of Applied Engineering Research, 13(10), 7331-7338.
17. Fagbohun ED, Okoye TC, OgbunugaforHA, Agboke AA,201). A review on the medicinal potentials of plants belonging to the Fabaceae family. Journal of Herbs, Spices and Medicinal Plants 25(2):182-220.
18. Okwu, D. E. (2004). Phytochemicals and vitamin content of indigenous species of. Pharmacology, 26(1), 1-12.
19. Eshwarappa, R. S., Ramachandra, Y. L., Subaramaihha, S. R., Subbaiah, S. G. (2014). Antibacterial activity of plant extracts from Indian medicinal plants against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Journal of Taibah University Medical Sciences 9(1):64-69.
20. Jain, S. K., Jain, N. K. (2010). Antidiabetic activity of C. album and its fractions in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Pharmaceutical Biology, 48(5), 524-529.
21. Ikram, M., Shah, Y., Hanif, M. A., Ali, S. (2019). Review of the pharmacological activities of Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 8(1),344-352.
22. Zhao, Y., Wang, M., Li, Y., Li, Y., Li, Y. (2019). The pharmacological activities of Artemisia annua L. and its derivatives artemisinins. Fitoterapia, 139, 104405.
23. Morales, A., Ladio, A. (2012). The Use of Edible and Medicinal Plants by Local Inhabitants in Southern Patagonia. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 8(1), p. 42.
24. Rahman, M. A., Parvin, S. (2014). A Review on Nutritional and Medicinal Values of Legumes. International Journal of Nutrition and Food Sciences, 3(4), pp. 284-294.
25. Gao, X., Chen, H., Huang, L., Jin, Y., Shi, Q. (2010). The Leguminosae Family: APotential Source of Anti-inflammatory Compounds. Chinese Journal of Natural Medicines, 8(1), pp. 1-9.
26. Edegora, H. O., Ogunbinu, A. O., Okwuosa, C. N. (2019). Ethnomedicinal plants used in the management of tuberculosis by traditional healers in Delta State, Nigeria. Medicinal Plant Research, 9(1), pp. 1-12.
27. Shackleton, C., & Shackleton, S. (2004). The importance of non-timber forest products in rural livelihood security and as safety nets: a review of evidence from South Africa. South African Journal of Science, 100(11), 658-664.
28. Sheldon, J. W., Balick, M. J., Laird, S. A., & Milne, G. M. (1997). Medicinal plants: can utilization and conservation coexist?. Advances in economic botany, 12, i-104.
29. Ajayi, A. M., Tanayena, J. K., Balogun, S. O., Ibrahim, A.,Ezeonwumelu, J. O., Kiplagat, D., ... & Adzu, B. (2011). Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Properties of Ethanolic Stem Bark Extract of Ficus trichopoda in Rats. Pharmacognosy Journal, 2(18), 43-47.
30. Abdelgadir, H. A., & Van Staden, J. (2013). Ethnobotany, ethnopharmacology and toxicity of Jatropha curcas L.(Euphorbiaceae): A review. South African Journal of Botany, 88, 204-218.
31. Acharya, R., Padiya, R. H., Patel, E. D., Rudrapa, H. C., Shukla, V. J., & Chauhan, M. G. (2012). Pharmacognostical evaluation of leaf of Bada Rasna [Nelsonia canescens (Lam.) Spreng.; Acanthaceae]. Ancient Science of Life, 31(4), 194.
32. Adam, K. A., Krampah, E. (2005). Gmelina arborea Roxb. ex Sm. In: Louppe, D., Oteng-Amoako, A.A. & Brink, M. (Editors). PROTA (Plant Resources of Tropical Africa / Ressources végétales de l’Afrique tropicale), Wageningen, Netherlands. Accessed 18 June 2023.
33. Adéoti, K., Dansi, A., Ahoton, L., Vodouhe, R. S., Ahohuendo,B. C., Rival, A., & Sanni, A. (2012). Agromorphological characterization of Sesamum radiatum (Schum. and Thonn.), a neglected and underutilized species of traditional leafy vegetable of great importance in Benin.
34. Afolayan, M., Srivedavyasasri, R., Asekun, O. T., Familoni,O. B., Orishadipe, A., Zulfiqar, F., ... & Ross, S. A. (2018). Phytochemical study of Piliostigma thonningii, a medicinal plant grown in Nigeria. Medicinal Chemistry Research, 27, 2325-2330.
35. Anand, A., Divya, N., & Kotti, P. (2015). An updated review of Terminalia catappa. Pharmacognosy reviews, 9(18), 93. 
36. Anand, M., & Basavaraju, R. (2021). A review on phytochemistry and pharmacological uses of Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex Kunth. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 265, 113270.
37. Bahekar, S. E., & Kale, R. S. (2015). Antidiarrheal activity of ethanolic extract of Manihot esculenta Crantz leaves in Wistar rats. Journal of Ayurveda and integrative medicine, 6(1), 35.
38. Bais, S., Gill, N. S., Rana, N., & Shandil, S. (2014). A phytopharmacological review on a medicinal plant: Juniperus communis. International scholarly research notices, 2014.
39. Bhuyan, D. J., Alsherbiny, M. A., Perera, S., Low, M., Basu, A., Devi, O. A., ... & Papoutsis, K. (2019). The odyssey of bioactive compounds in avocado (Persea americana) and their health benefits. Antioxidants, 8(10), 426.
40. DG, B., Elisha, I. L., Habu, K. A., Dogonyaro, B. B., & Kaikabo, A. A. (2011). Management of surgical wounds using crude neem oil in one year old ram: A successful report. Journal of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Health, 3(6), 75-78.
41. Chabert-Llompart, J. (2022). Ixora coccinea (flame-of-the-woods), CABI Compendium. CABI International.
42. Datiles, M. J., Acevedo-Rodríguez, P. (2022).Caesalpinia pulcherrima (peacock flower), CABI Compendium. CABI International.
43. Díaz-de-Cerio, E., Verardo, V., Gómez-Caravaca, A. M., Fernández-Gutiérrez, A., & Segura-Carretero, A. (2017). Health effects of Psidium guajava L. leaves: an overview of the last decade. International journal of molecular sciences, 18(4), 897.
44. Dietmar, B. (2015). Irrigation supports the spreading of alien weeds in Fuerteventura. Braunschweiger Geobotanische Arbeiten 10:77-80
45. Duvall, C. S. (2011). Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. In: Brink, M. and Achigan-Dako, E.G. (Editors). PROTA (Plant Resources of Tropical Africa / Ressources végétales de l’Afrique tropicale), Wageningen, Netherlands
46. Elisha, I. L., Gotep, J. G., Makoshi, M. S., Usman, J. G.,Shok, B. Z., Oyebade, K. F., ... & Muhammad, M. (2023). Trends in Euphorbia hirta Research: A 30-year Bibliometric Appraisal of the Present Realities. Journal of Complementary and Medicinal Research, 14(1), 81-92.
47. Elisha, I. L., Makoshi, M. S., Makama, S., Dawurung, C. J., Offiah, N. V., Gotep, J. G., ... & Shamaki, D. (2013). Antidiarrheal evaluation of aqueous and ethanolic stem bark extracts of Khaya senegalensis A. Juss (Meliaceae) in albino rats.
48. Fathiazad, F., Mazandarani, M., & Hamedeyazdan, S. (2011). Phytochemical analysis and antioxidant activity of Hyssopus officinalis L. from Iran. Advanced Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 1(2), 63.
49. Fontem, D. A., & Schippers, R. R. (2004). Talinum triangulare (Jacq.) Willd [Internet] record from protabase. Plant resources of tropical Africa. Wageningen, the Netherlands.
50. Fryer, J. L. (2010). Ailanthus altissima. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laborat
51. Gade, I. S., Chadeneau, C., Tagne Simo, R., Atchade, A. D. T., Talla, E., Seite, P., ... & Muller, J. M. (2022). A new flavonoid glycoside from Tapinanthus sp.(Loranthaceae) and evaluation of anticancer activity of extract and some isolated compounds. Natural Product Research, 36(16), 4085-4093.
52. Google. Google Lens. 2023.
53. Gotep, J. G., Agada, G. O. A., Gbise, D. S., & Chollom, S. (2010). Antibacterial activity of ethanolic extract of Acalypha wilkesiana leaves growing in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria. Malaysian Journal of Microbiology, 6(2), 69-74.
54. Grichi, A., Nasr, Z., Khouja, M. L., Ouerghi, F., Rhouma, A., Aloui, S., ... & Nasraoui, B. (2016). Phytotoxic effects of essential oil from Eucalyptus cinerea and its physiological mechanisms. Journal of New Sciences, 15.
55. Grimshaw, J,. Bayton, R,. Christian, T. (2019). 'Araucaria heterophylla' from the website Trees and Shrubs Online.
56. Hasan, M. R., Alotaibi, B. S., Althafar, Z. M., Mujamammi,A. H., & Jameela, J. (2023). An Update on the Therapeutic Anticancer Potential of Ocimum sanctum L.:“Elixir of Life”. Molecules, 28(3), 1193.
57. He, X., Luan, F., Yang, Y., Wang, Z., Zhao, Z., Fang, J., ... & Li, Y. (2020). Passiflora edulis: An insight into current researches on phytochemistry and pharmacology. Frontiers in pharmacology, 11, 617.
58. Heuzé, V., Tran, G., Archimède, H., & Bastianelli, D. (2016). African baobab (Adansonia digitata)| Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. Retrieved November 11, 2022.
59. Heuzé, V., Tran, G., Hassoun, P., Bastianelli, D., & Lebas,F. (2017). Cashew (Anacardium occidentale) nuts and by-products. Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO.
60. Heuzé, V., Tran, G., Hassoun, P., Lebas, F. (2020). Century plant (Agave americana). Feedipedia, a programme by INRAE, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO.
61. Heuzé, V., Tran, G., Hassoun, P., Lebas, F. (2021). Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus). Feedipedia, a programme by INRAE, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO.
62. Hou, T., Netala, V. R., Zhang, H., Xing, Y., Li, H., & Zhang, Z. (2022). Perilla frutescens: A rich source of pharmacological active compounds. Molecules, 27(11), 3578.
63. Ijoma, I. K., & Ajiwe, V. I. E. (2022). Jatropha tanjorensis a Flora of Southeast Nigeria: Isolation and Characteriza-tion of Naringenin and Validation of Bio-enhanced Synergistical Activity of-Tocopherol Toward Clinical Isolates of Resistant Bacterial. Makara Journal of Science, 26(2), 6.
64. Jaiturong, P., Laosirisathian, N., Sirithunyalug, B., Eitssayeam, S., Sirilun, S., Chaiyana, W., & Sirithunyalug, J. (2020). Potential of Musa sapientum Linn. for digestive function promotion by supporting Lactobacillus sp. Heliyon, 6(10).
65. Jan, S., Rashid, M., Abd_Allah, E. F., & Ahmad, P. (2020). Biological efficacy of essential oils and plant extracts of cultivated and wild ecotypes of Origanum vulgare L. BioMed Research International, 2020.
66. Jaradat, N. A., Ala’khader, I. S., & ABU-HADID, M. A. H.M. O. U. D. (2014). Exhaustive extraction and screening the biological activities of Heliotropium hirsutissimum (hairy heliotrope): a member of Palestinian flora. Asian J Pharm Clin Res, 7(5), 207-210.
67. Kadiri, O., & Olawoye, B. (2016). Vernonia amygdalina: An underutilized vegetable with nutraceutical Potentials–A Review. Turkish Journal of Agriculture-Food Science and Technology, 4(9), 763-768.
68. Kakkar, M., Behl, T., Cruz, C. V. D. L., Makeen, H. A., Albratty,M., Alhazmi, H. A., ... & Abdel-Daim, M. M. (2022). Tridax procumbens ameliorates streptozotocin-induced diabetic neuropathy in rats via modulating angiogenic, inflammatory, and oxidative pathways. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2022.
69. Kashyap, P., Kumar, S., Riar, C. S., Jindal, N., Baniwal, P., Guiné, R. P., ... & Kumar, H. (2022). Recent advances in Drumstick (Moringa oleifera) leaves bioactive compounds: Composition, health benefits, bioaccessibility, and dietary applications. Antioxidants, 11(2), 402.
70. Katkar, K. V., Suthar, A. C., & Chauhan, V. S. (2010). The chemistry, pharmacologic, and therapeutic applications of Polyalthia longifolia. Pharmacognosy reviews, 4(7), 62.
71. Kavitha, A., Deepthi, N., Ganesan, R., & Joseph, G. J. (2012). Common dryland trees of Karnataka: bilingual field guide. Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment, Bangalore.
72. Khan, I. A., Hussain, M., Syed, S. K., Saadullah, M., Alqahtani,A. M., Alqahtani, T., ... & Zeng, L. H. (2021). Pharmacological justification for the medicinal use of Plumeria rubra Linn. in cardiovascular disorders. Molecules, 27(1), 251.
73. Klimek-Szczykutowicz, M., Szopa, A., & Ekiert, H. (2020). Citrus limon (Lemon) phenomenon—a review of the chemistry, pharmacological properties, applications in the modern pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetics industries, and biotechnological studies. Plants, 9(1), 119.
74. Koul, B., Pudhuvai, B., Sharma, C., Kumar, A., Sharma, V., Yadav, D., & Jin, J. O. (2022). Carica papaya L.: a tropical fruit with benefits beyond the tropics. Diversity, 14(8), 683.
75. Kumari, S., Bhatt, V., Suresh, P. S., & Sharma, U. (2021). Cissampelos pareira L.: a review of its traditional uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacology. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 274, 113850.
76. Lehner, S., Schulz, S., & Dötterl, S. (2022). The mystery of the butterfly bush Buddleja davidii: How are the butterflies attracted?. Frontiers in Plant Science, 3315.
77. Li, Y., Chen, Y., & Sun-Waterhouse, D. (2022). The potential of dandelion in the fight against gastrointestinal diseases: A review. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 293, 115272.
78. ÃÂ?yczko, J., Piotrowski, K., Kolasa, K., Galek, R., & Szumny,A. (2020). Mentha piperita L. micropropagation and the potential influence of plant growth regulators on volatile organic compound composition. Molecules, 25(11), 2652.
79. Magnini, R. D., Hilou, A., Millogo-Koné, H., Pagès, J. M., & Davin-Regli, A. (2020). Acacia senegal extract rejuvenates the activity of phenicols on selected enterobacteriaceae multi drug resistant strains. Antibiotics, 9(6), 323.
80. Narayanan, M. C., Rao, P. R., Shanmugam, N. N., Gopalakrishnan, S. M., & Devi, K. (2007). Isolation and characterisation of bioactive isoflavonoids from the roots of Dalbergia horrida. Natural product research, 21(10), 903-909.
81. Missoum, A. (2018). An update review on Hibiscus rosa sinensis phytochemistry and medicinal uses. Journal of Ayurvedic and Herbal Medicine, 4(3), 135-146.
82. Mogaka, S., Molu, H., Kagasi, E., Ogila, K., Waihenya, R., Onditi, F., & Ozwara, H. (2023). Senna occidentalis (L.) Link root extract inhibits Plasmodium growth in vitro and in mice. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies, 23(1), 71.
83. Mollick, A. S., Shimoji, H., Denda, T., Yokota, M., & Yamasaki, H. (2011). Croton Codiaeum variegatum (L.) Blume cultivars characterized by leaf phenotypic parameters. Scientia Horticulturae, 132, 71-79.
84. Mourya, N. M. N., Bhopte, D. B. D., & Sagar, R. S. R. (2017).A review on Jasminum sambac: A potential medicinal plant. International Journal of Indigenous Herbs and Drugs, 13-16.
85. Ntalo, M., Ravhuhali, K. E., Moyo, B., Hawu, O., & Msiza, N.H. (2022). Lantana camara: poisonous species and a potential browse species for goats in southern Africa—a review. Sustainability, 14(2), 751.
86. Ogunnusi, T. A., Oso, B. A., & Dosumu, O. O. (2010). Isolation and antibacterial activity of triterpenes from Euphorbia kamerunica Pax. International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences, 4(1).
87. Oladeji, O. S., Adelowo, F. E., Oluyori, A. P., & Bankole, D. T. (2020). Ethnobotanical description and biological activities of Senna alata. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2020.
88. Oliveira, I. D. S. D. S., Colares, A. V., Cardoso, F. D. O.,Tellis, C. J. M., Chagas, M. D. S. D. S., Behrens, M. D., ... & Abreu-Silva, A. L. (2019). Vernonia polysphaera Baker: Anti-inflammatory activity in vivo and inhibitory effect in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. PLoS One, 14(12), e0225275.
89. Orona-Tamayo, D., Wielsch, N., Escalante-Pérez, M., Svatos, A., Molina-Torres, J., Muck, A., ... & Heil, M. (2013). Short-term proteomic dynamics reveal metabolic factory for active extrafloral nectar secretion by A cacia cornigera ant-
90. plants. The Plant Journal, 73(4), 546-554.
91. Orwa, C., Mutua, A., Kindt, R., Jamnadass, R., & Simons, A. (2009). Agroforestree Database: a tree reference and selection guide. Version 4. Agroforestree Database: a tree reference and selection guide. Version 4.
92. Owusu-Boadi, E., Akuoko Essuman, M., Mensah, G., Ayamba Ayimbissa, E., & Boye, A. (2021). Antimicrobial Activity against Oral Pathogens Confirms the Use of Musa paradisiaca Fruit Stalk in Ethnodentistry. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2021.
93. Pirro, S., & Obembe, O. (2022). The Complete Genome Sequence  of Telfairia  occidentalis,  the African  Fluted Pumpkin. Biodiversity genomes.
94. Poonia, A., & Upadhayay, A. (2015). Chenopodium album Linn: review of nutritive value and biological properties. Journal of food science and technology, 52, 3977-3985.
95. Rojas-Sandoval, J. (2022). Acacia polyacantha (white thorn).
96. Rojas-Sandoval, J. (2022). ‘Bougainvillea spectabilis (great bougainvillea)’, CABI Compendium. CABI International.
97. Rojas-Sandoval, J,. Acevedo-Rodríguez, P. (2022). ‘Crotalaria retusa (rattleweed)’, CABI Compendium. CABI International.
98. Schoch, C. L., Ciufo, S., Domrachev, M., Hotton, C. L., Kannan, S., Khovanskaya, R., ... & Karsch-Mizrachi, I. (2020). NCBI Taxonomy: a comprehensive update on curation, resources and tools. Database, 2020, baaa062.
99. Shah, K. A., Patel, M. B., Patel, R. J., & Parmar, P. K. (2010). Mangifera indica (mango). Pharmacognosy reviews, 4(7), 42.
100. Sharma, S. (2021). A Review on Eucalyptus Globulus–An Authentic Herb. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International, 33(53B), 107-114.
101. Stabrauskiene, J., Marksa, M., Ivanauskas, L., Viskelis, P., Viskelis, J., & Bernatoniene, J. (2023). Citrus× paradisi L. Fruit Waste: The Impact of Eco-Friendly Extraction Techniques on the Phytochemical and Antioxidant Potential. Nutrients, 15(5), 1276.
102. Tenorio-Escandón, P., Ramírez-Hernández, A., Flores, J., Juan-Vicedo, J., & Martínez-Falcón, A. P. (2022). A systematic review on Opuntia (Cactaceae; Opuntioideae) flower-visiting Insects in the world with emphasis on Mexico: Implications for biodiversity conservation. Plants, 11(1), 131.
103. Thomas, D. A., & Barber, H. N. (1974). Studies on leaf characteristics of a cline of Eucalyptus urnigera from Mount Wellington, Tasmania. I. Water repellency and the freezing of leaves. Australian Journal of Botany, 22(3), 501-512.
104. Thomson, F. J., Auld, T. D., Ramp, D., & Kingsford, R. T. (2016). A switch in keystone seed-dispersing ant genera between two elevations for a myrmecochorous plant, Acacia terminalis. Plos one, 11(6), e0157632.
105. Toklo, P. M., Yayi Ladekan, E., Linden, A., Hounzangbe-Adote, S., Kouam, S. F., & Gbenou, J. D. (2021). Anthelmintic flavonoids and other compounds from Combretum glutinosum Perr. ex DC (Combretaceae) leaves. Acta Crystallographica Section C: Structural Chemistry, 77(9), 505-512.
106. Usman, J. G., Sodipo, O. A., Kwaghe, A. V., Wampana, B., John, N., Umaru, H., & Sandabe, U. K. (2018). Effects of crude methanol extract of the fruit of Cucumis metuliferus (Cucurbitaceae) on some haematological parameters in Cockerels. The Journal of Phytopharmacology, 7(2), 106-110.
107. Vélez-Gavilán, J. (2022). ‘Basella alba (malabar spinach)’,CABI Compendium. CABI International.
108. Vélez-Gavilán J. (2022). ‘Jatropha integerrima (peregrina)’,CABI Compendium. CABI International.
109. Vengaiah, P. C., Kaleemullah, S., Madhava, M., Mani, A., & Sreekanth, B. (2021). Palmyrah fruit (Borassus flabellifer L.): Source of immunity and healthy food: A review. The Pharma Innovation, 10(11), 1920-1925.
110. Worbs, S., Köhler, K., Pauly, D., Avondet, M. A., Schaer, M., Dorner, M. B., & Dorner, B. G. (2011). Ricinus communis intoxications in human and veterinary medicine—a summary of real cases. Toxins, 3(10), 1332-1372.
111. Wu, Q., Patocka, J., Nepovimova, E., & Kuca, K. (2019). Jatropha gossypiifolia L. and its biologically active metabolites: A mini review. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 234, 197-203.