Beyond Barriers: Mini Review of Multi-Level Determinants of Female Labour Force Participation in Developing Economies
Abstract
Sabrina Nurul Afifah and Moses Glorino Rumambo Pandin
Female labour force participation (FLFP) remains a persistent and multidimensional challenge in developing countries, shaped by a complex interplay of structural, institutional, technological, and sociocultural forces. This mini literature review synthesises eight peer reviewed empirical studies to examine the determinants and dynamics of women's labour market engagement across multiple levels of analysis. Drawing on quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research conducted in Indonesia and comparative cross national settings, the review identifies household technology, gender norms, spatial context, family policies, rural development programmes, and digital tools as key factors influencing FLFP. Spatial regression analysis reveals significant provincial heterogeneity in labour force participation rates (LFPR) within Indonesia, while cross national panel data demonstrate that the effects of early childhood education and care (ECEC) spending and paid parental leave on mothers' employment are contingent on earnings inequality and educational attainment. At the micro level, qualitative evidence from urban Indonesia illustrates how married women's employment decisions are constrained by opportunity costs arising from patriarchal norms, inadequate childcare infrastructure, and the burdens of commuting in mega urban environments. At the macro level, community based rural organisations and Indonesia's Village Fund Programme (Dana Desa) demonstrate that targeted fiscal interventions can simultaneously reduce rural poverty and expand women's economic participation. Technology based solutions, including mobile applications designed to promote gender equality, further illustrate the transformative potential of digital innovation in addressing skills deficits and broadening employment access. This review concludes that advancing FLFP requires coordinated, context sensitive policies that simultaneously address structural economic conditions, institutional support systems, and deeply embedded gender norms.