Meta-Analysis of Emotional Intelligence in Stress Management

Introduction

In recent decades, the study of the relationship between emotional intelligence (EI) and stress management has sparked much interest in the fields of organizational behaviour, psychology, and personnel management. The association between emotional intelligence and stress management has received much attention from psychologists, managers, and employers because of the significant role of EI in managing stress. Emotional intelligence helps to measure and improve the emotional efficiency of human resources, which aids them in coping with stressful circumstances. Moreover, it is useful in translating strategic plans into goals by enhancing self-awareness, empathy, and communication skills [1]. Daniel Goleman's book, ‘Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ’, published in 1995, brought the concept of emotional intelligence to the public's attention. For Goleman and Cherniss, EI is the individual’s ability to curb negative emotions of rage, low self-esteem, and anxiety and replace them with positive emotions such as confidence, empathy, and friendship [2]. Emotional intelligence (EI) aims to explain a set of human skills for processing and using sentimental information [3]. Presently, there are three primary areas of research on the EI construct as a result of all the contributions made by researchers, namely, the ability model, the trait model, and the mixed model [4-6].

It is essential to examine the relationship between stress management and emotional intelligence (EI) to understand how individuals with higher EI may better manage stress [7]. To understand the dynamics between these two concepts, it is important to first define stress. “Stress” was initially coined in the 1950s by Dr. Hans Selye, also known as the “father of stress research”. According to him, stress is the body’s response to any demands placed upon it. He suggested that the best way to handle stress is to identify its root causes, deal with them, and develop coping strategies to reduce its effects [8]. Stress management includes a range of techniques, strategies, and therapies aimed at helping individuals manage their stress levels. The ultimate goal is to reduce chronic stress and amplify overall well-being and happiness [9]. Stress management is a dimension of emotional and mental well-being closely linked to emotional intelligence as a person's ability to face challenging situations is directly related to his or her emotional quotient. Uncontrolled stress can often lead to both physical and mental disorders, which, in turn, can result in psychological issues such as conflicts, aggressive behaviour, and a lack of compatibility with others [10]. Emotional intelligence impacts positive social interaction, which supports stress management by regulating emotions during times of worry or pressure. Therefore, it is essential to develop emotional intelligence to maintain mental well-being and manage stress effectively [11].

Conceptual Framework

Emotional Intelligence

Emotions are our body’s way of reacting to different experiences. They can range from happiness, surprise, and optimism to sadness, distress, and anger. Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to identify, comprehend, and manage these emotions, as well as empathize with others’ sentiments [12]. EI plays a major role in people’s personal and professional lives, influencing decision- making, relationships, and overall harmony. EIs incorporate self-awareness, emotional regulation, social skills, and empathy, which play vital roles in people’s lives by helping us better understand ourselves and others, and steering social interactions. By developing a high EI, individuals can enhance relationships, improve self-awareness, make better decisions, become better leaders, increase resilience, and improve stress management [13].

Stress and Stress Management

Stress refers to the body’s physiological and psychological response to the challenging environment, often referred to as stressors, that surpasses an individual’s coping resources. Stress manifests differently in every individual, including emotional and physical symptoms, and can have both acute and chronic effects on health and well-being. Individual sensitivities and understandings of stressors play key roles in the level of stress experienced [14]. The root cause of stress, i.e. stressors, can arise from several aspects of life, including relationships, financial difficulties, workload, mental or physical health issues, overwhelming life changes, and other uncontrollable environmental factors [9]. The implications of stress can be related to both physical and mental health. Some physical symptoms of stress can include headache, fatigue, changes in appetite, increased heart rate, insomnia, gastrointestinal issues, muscle tension, and weakened immune function. Similarly, stress can translate to depression, irritability, anxiety, mood swings, and trouble concentrating [15]. Stress management involves practices and approaches aimed at reducing, coping with, or preventing the negative effects of stress. It incorporates a wide range of techniques, including lifestyle changes, societal support, deep breathing or meditation, getting enough sleep, cognitive-behavioural methods, and professional help. For stress management to be effective, a combination of these approaches needs to be adopted according to individual needs and situations [16].

Definitions

Emotional Intelligence

Over the years, the definition of emotional intelligence has been shaped by the contributions of authors such as Mayer and Salovey, Daniel Goleman, Howard Gardner, and Reuven Bar-On. The concept of EI is still evolving and being refined by researchers and practitioners. Through these efforts, emotional intelligence can be defined as follows: Emotional intelligence involves accurately acknowledging, understanding, expressing, and regulating emotions. It is not limited to perceiving and controlling one’s emotions; it also includes empathizing with others to deal with emotive situations effectively [17,18].

Stress Management

Some notable contributors to the definition of stress management are Hans Selye, Lazarus and Folkman, Robert Sapolsky, and Herbert Benson. These findings significantly moulded our understanding of stress and its management techniques. The following is a comprehensive definition that integrates the basics of stress management from different sources: Stress management involves finding healthy ways to cope with stress. These interventions include mental health strategies and techniques, that reduce the negative impacts of stress which affects our mental and physical well-being [19-23].

Rationale of Emotional Intelligence and Stress Management

Emotional intelligence and stress management are interconnected abstract ideas that play imperative roles in the overall development and well-being of individuals, both personally and professionally.

The following is an analysis of their rationale and how these concepts relate:

• Emotional Intelligence: Emotional intelligence involves man- aging our emotions, as well as perceiving and influencing the emo- tions of others. It incorporates communication, intrapersonal and interpersonal awareness, and relationship management with the assistance of stress management and adaptability [24]. The ratio- nale behind EI lies in its impact on various aspects of life. People with high EI tend to have healthier relationships, make sounder decisions, and have a better coping mechanism against challenges. In terms of stress management, EI enables individuals to realize their emotional states and understand their triggers, helping them respond and cope with stressful situations more effectively. More self-aware individuals are capable of regulating their emotions and preventing them from escalating into anxiety or stress [1].

• Stress Management: Stress is an instinctive response to chal- lenging situations, but excessive and prolonged stress can adverse- ly affect physical and mental health. Stress management involves approaches and practices aimed at reducing, controlling, or cop- ing with stress [25]. The rationale behind stress management is to maintain an equilibrium between life difficulties and our ability to deal with them. Effective stress management helps individuals build resilience, improve overall well-being, and enhance their ability to perform at their best. The role of EI in stress manage- ment is significant because it provides individuals with the skills to identify the root cause of stress, regulate emotions, and adopt coping mechanisms that are constructive [22]. Therefore, the ra- tionale behind emotional intelligence and stress management is to intensify our ability to steer through challenges, establish and maintain mental and emotional well-being, and cultivate reward- ing relationships [1].

Objectives

To define the relationship between emotional intelligence and stress management.

Methodology/Search Strategy

A comprehensive literature search was conducted for inclusion in this study. An electronic search of 7 databases was performed: Emerald Insight, The Wiley Online Library, Sage Journals, SpringerLink, Taylor & Francis Online, JSTOR, and PubMed. A detailed search strategy was developed to identify relevant studies from each database. A total of 172 research publications, books, and published material in print media were reviewed in this study, 91 of which were included in this paper. Keywords related to the topic of the study were used, including; emotional intelligence, emotional quotient, stress, stress management, relationship, coping, leadership, communication, and performance. To broaden the scope of the study, Boolean operators and truncations were used as necessary. The papers were published from 1995 to 2022 because these years provided the most comprehensive overview of the literature on this topic and provided an understanding of the evolution and improvements needed in relevant research. The top journals selected were as follows: International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, American Journal of Health Promotion, Oxford Research Encyclopaedia of Psychology, Journal of Human Stress, Journal of Educational Psychology, International Journal of Indian Culture and Business Management, International Journal of Research in Organizational Behaviour and Human Resource Management, Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, Academy of Management Journal, Australian Journal of Psychology, Indian Journal of Social Psychiatry, The International Journal of Organizational Analysis, IRA-International Journal of Management & Social Sciences, International Journal of Health Studies, Sa Journal of Industrial Psychology, EXCEL International Journal of Multidisciplinary Management Studies, International Journal of Manpower, and German Journal of Human Resource Management. After identifying the key authors in this research field, an extensive search was conducted again in the 7 databases mentioned above. The studies included in the study met the criteria of being published in the English language and were peer-reviewed articles/books. Studies were excluded if they were not relevant to the research objective.

Analysis of the Literature: Meta-Analysis

Evolution of Emotional Intelligence and Stress Management

• Emotional Intelligence: Emotion is an omnipresent potency encompassing and shaping every facade of our lives especially our intellectual environment, through its powerful impact. The relationship between emotion and intellect was explored for the first time in 1675 [26]. More than two centuries later, in 1920, the idea of emotional intelligence was tapped at a surficial level when the concept of social intelligence, a subset of EI, was introduced [27]. In 1966, EI was first mentioned in a German paper titled, “Emotional Intelligence and Emancipation” by Barbara Leuner, in which she showed EI as a testable mental skill [28]. Afterwards, a framework for emotional intelligence was published in 1990, by Peter Salovey and J. D. Mayer, this framework formed the current understanding of emotional intelligence (EI) and led to 30 years of research, authorship, expansion, review, and controversy [12]. Daniel Goleman, the father of Emotional Intelligence, was influenced by their work and consequently popularized the idea of EI [6].

The Indian Context

In Indian culture, EI can be traced back to ancient philosophical and spiritual traditions. The values of self-awareness, empathy, and self-regulation have infused various aspects of Indian society, including family, education, and work culture. Indian philosophical traditions have long emphasized the significance of understanding one's emotions, inculcating kindness, and attaining inner peace and balance. They serve as foundational philosophies for EI in the Indian context [29]. Indian culture strongly emphasizes family bonds and relationships. Effective management of complex family dynamics requires emotional intelligence to resolve conflicts and maintain harmony [30]. Moreover, deep-rooted spiritual practices such as meditation, yoga, and mindfulness are known to enhance emotional awareness and self-regulation and promote emotional well-being [31,32]. Indian schools are realizing the significance of socioemotional skills in personal and academic development. As a result, they are now incorporating emotional intelligence training into their curricula. The programs concentrate on developing self- awareness, empathy, and conflict resolution skills. The goal is to foster individuals who are capable of confronting life's challenges [33]. India's cultural diversity requires high cultural sensitivity, and EI helps people navigate differences, communicate effectively, and foster inclusivity [34]. Therefore, emotional intelligence in the Indian context is strongly shaped by the country's ancient philosophical traditions, family values, spirituality, and cultural dynamics. It is crucial to incorporate emotional intelligence into various aspects of life, including education, the workplace, and interpersonal relationships, to achieve personal growth, social harmony, and overall well-being. In conclusion, integrating emotional intelligence is essential for a healthy and fulfilling life in India.

Stress Management

Stress is a natural physical response of the body when people feel vulnerable or troubled. The current concept of stress was developed from the pioneering contributions of Claude Bernard, Walter B. Cannon, and Hans Selye [35]. In 1975, it was suggested that it is better to categorize stress into “eustress” i.e. good stress, and “distress”, i.e., bad stress [25]. The typical responses to stress were found to be physiological, cognitive, or behavioural [25,36- 38]. Additionally, research has revealed that the stress response is a complex, multilevel process and that there are positive and negative behavioural effects of stress [39,40]. Stress management includes tools, strategies, or techniques that reduce stress and the negative impacts that stress has on your mental or physical well- being. These include mental, emotional, and behavioural strategies [23].

The Indian Context

The progression of stress management in India is the result of the combination of traditional and modern approaches originating from scientific research and global influence. Traditional practices such as yoga, Ayurveda, and meditation aim at promoting holistic well-being and managing stress. They focus on techniques such as yoga asanas, breathing exercises, natural remedies, and mindful meditation. These techniques are scientifically backed and globally acknowledged for effectively managing stress [41]. India’s diverse spiritual and religious traditions offer various practices and rituals such as prayers, chanting, and devotional singing that can help individuals cope with stress and promote inner peace [42]. Due to globalization and the expansion of urbanization in India, there has also been a rise in lifestyle and health-related stressors. As a result, awareness of stress management and physical and mental well-being has increased. Corporates have recently begun to incorporate stress management programs by offering yoga classes, meditation sessions, and mental health workshops to their employees [43]. In recent years, the government has also taken initiatives such as the National Mental Health Program (NMHP), National Mental Health Policy, and the Ministry of AYUSH (Ayurveda, Yoga & Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha, and Homeopathy) to mainstream ancient Indian practices and incorporate them into the healthcare system [44]. Therefore, in India, the evolution of stress management involves a combination of traditional wisdom, scientific advancement, globalization, urbanization, and government support. This holistic approach considers the interconnectedness of physical, mental, and emotional wellness and stresses the importance of addressing stress management at multiple levels for optimal health.

Components of Emotional Intelligence and Stress

Daniel Goleman identified five components of emotional intelligence; first, self-awareness, that is, the ability to recognize and understand emotions, includes the impact of one's actions and the emotions of others. The second component is self-regulation which refers to the appropriate articulation of emotion. The third component is social skills, or the ability to interact well with others. The fourth component is empathy, which refers to the ability to understand how others feel. The last component identified by Goleman is motivation, which, in the context of emotional intelligence, refers to being driven by personal needs and goals rather than external rewards such as money or recognition [45]. Daniel Goleman also identified the components of workplace stress in 2018. The first proposed component of stress is the stressor, which is the primary cause of stress. The second component is the stress response which explains how the brain responds to the stressor. Individual differences, the third component of stress, refer to the fact that everyone experiences stress differently. The fourth component is allostatic load, a term coined by Bruce McEwen and Eliot Steller in 1993 to describe the wear and tear on the body that accumulates when exposed to repeated chronic or repeated stressors. Finally, the fifth component of stress, allostatic balance, is the process of returning to a state of physiological and emotional balance after experiencing stress [13].

The Relationship Between Emotional Intelligence and Stress Management

The relationship between EI and stress management was first established in 1998 by Goleman, who proposed self-awareness as a critical skill in handling stress, this approach indicates that a lack of emotional intelligence in an unstable environment indicates possible failure [13]. EI plays a moderating role in coping with stress. Hence, people who lack emotional intelligence often struggle to handle stress-related problems effectively [46,47]. There is a negative correlation between emotional intelligence and work-related stress [48]. A study concluded that aspects of emotional intelligence are relevant to work-related stress in managing emotional reactions and may help to build adaptive responses to work-related difficulties [49]. Furthermore, managing stress by being optimistic and socially confident, is a characteristic of highly emotionally intelligent individuals who also helps them cultivate healthier relationships at work [50]. Multiple studies have shown that an EI-induced positive stress-coping style results in job satisfaction [51-54]. EI helps employees endure stress in fiercely competitive organizational environments, enhances devotion to the firm, helps employees positively connect with colleagues, and helps employees collaborate with colleagues to achieve goals [55]. Over the years, employee burnout, often an outcome of job stress has also been analysed with respect to EI. A study presented the significant role of employees’ emotional intelligence in mitigating a negative spiral of incivility, socialstress and employee burnout [56]. Moreover, a relationship between EI and stress management has been observed among students. One study examined EI, coping, and exam-related stress in Canadian undergraduate students, and reported that stress was positively associated with emotion-focused coping, and adversely associated with task-focused coping and EI [57]. Another study investigated the mediating effects of emotional intelligence and coping on adolescent problem behaviours. Emotionally intelligent adolescents are less likely to embody their emotional experience through anxiety, depression, withdrawal, and exclusion from social engagement [58,59]. Therefore, there is plenty of evidence in the form of research supporting the statement that emotional intelligence can help people subjugate their worries and help them better communicate, engage, and cope with stress [60].

Stress management is a continuous process essential for maintaining physical and mental well-being. It has four main components, as illustrated above: (i) emotional intelligence, which encompasses effective interpersonal and intrapersonal social skills, self-awareness, social awareness, and relationship management, and supports stress management (ii) communication, which helps individuals manage stress by reducing misunderstandings and conflicts (iii) physical wellness, which involves having a healthy diet, adequate sleep, and physical activity, and has a direct impact on stress management skills and (iv) prioritizing and organizing which includes task and time management that aid in moderating the effects of stressors [6,62-64]. The present study aimed to determine the relationship between emotional intelligence and stress management. To understand both of these domains collectively, it becomes essential to study their common constructs.

The following constructs are common to both emotional intelligence and stress management:

• Coping styles: Coping styles refer to the strategies that individuals use to manage and adapt to stressors in their lives. These styles can be categorized into different types: problem-focused, emotion- focused, avoidant, adaptive, and maladaptive coping [65,66]. Coping styles are closely related to both emotional intelligence (EI) and stress management. People with high EI are better able to identify their emotions and understand how these emotions affect their thoughts and actions [67-71]. Similarly, coping styles are an important aspect of stress management because they determine how individuals respond to and cope with stressors. Effective stress management involves the use of adaptive coping strategies that help reduce stress and its negative effects. Individuals who are skilled at managing stress can identify the best coping style for them and overcome stressful situations more easily [72]. By enhancing both EI and stress management, individuals can develop adaptive coping styles that promote well-being and resilience [73,74].

• Leadership: Leadership involves supervisory, inspirational, and influential roles to achieve shared goals. Leaders who possess emotional intelligence can establish trust, show empathy, and develop a deep understanding with their team members. These attributes are crucial for effective leadership [75-77]. In addition, effective leaders are skilled at managing their stress and helping others deal with it, which helps create a positive and productive work environment [78-80]. Thus, emotional intelligence and stress management are closely related concepts that enhance a leader's effectiveness.

• Communication: Communication serves as a common construct between EI and stress management and both are deeply intertwined with effective interpersonal interactions and self-expression. Effective communication is a key component of EI. Individuals with high EI are successful at expressing their emotions clearly, and understanding the emotions of others. Healthy communication fosters healthy relationships and reduces misunderstandings [6,11]. Communication also plays a very important role in stress management. Effective communication that is open and honest can help individuals express their concerns, set boundaries, delegate tasks, seek support, and collaborate with others to find solutions to stressful situations [81]. By developing communication skills informed by emotional intelligence and stress management principles, individuals can improve relationships, manage stress effectively, and navigate challenging situations more easily [82].

• Work/academic performance: Performance serves as a common construct between EI and stress management, as both play crucial roles in optimizing individual and organizational performance as well as academic success in students [83-86]. Individuals with a high EI possess multiple desirable qualities such as the ability to stay focused, motivated, and resilient during challenging circumstances. They also cultivate better relationships with the help of their interpersonal skills [87]. Moreover, they are better at regulating their emotions and managing stress which contributes to improved performance [11,88]. Similarly, when individuals are adept at managing stress, they cope with stress constructively and maintain optimal performance in stressful situations [48,49,89]. In summary, emotional intelligence and stress management are well-established. Several constructs can be identified after studying their interrelations, namely, coping styles, leadership, communication, and performance.

Findings

Of the total 172 reviewed research papers/articles/press notes/ books, 91 papers helped us establish a relationship between EI and stress management, 15 of these papers indicated an evident inverse relationship between them, and 29 were linked to their common constructs, which helped us conclude that EI and stress management are highly correlated. Several published resources have used the terms “coping” and “stress management” interchangeably [65,66]. However, research on the relationship between “EI and coping” has focused primarily on coping styles rather than stress management techniques [73,74]. Thus, bridging the gap in the literature by adding to the existing body of information is crucial [50-54,57]. To our knowledge, no meta-analysis or review-based study has been conducted on the relationship between EI and stress management. However, among the papers discussing the relationship between EI and stress management, the authors unanimously agree that both are essential skills for overall physical and mental well-being [58,59]. Mental health is often obstructed by factors (stressors) that are not always under our control. To cope with such stressful situations, individuals use different stress management strategies, and the role of emotional intelligence in coping with stress lies in the stress response [46,56]. Emotionally intelligent individuals can positively reframe negative thoughts and emotions and are capable of escaping difficult situations [90].

Discussion

Although there is conclusive evidence suggesting an inverse relationship between emotional intelligence and stress, and multiple studies providing compelling results to prove that emotionally intelligent individuals adopt better coping styles, there is limited published research on the “relationship established between EI and stress management” [50,91,92]. The present study is significant because it aims to present the extant body of knowledge on EI and stress management, focusing on their relationships, backed by reputed sources. This study suggests the existence of substantial gaps in the literature; the majority of the papers reviewed, examined emotional intelligence with leadership, job performance, or work/ academic stress. Hence, the relationship between emotional intelligence and stress management has been overlooked thus far. The implications of this paper for researchers and practitioners include improving the role of theory in literature reviews, as it represents collective studies that explore the relationship between EI and stress management. This study is qualitative and has several limitations. Emotional intelligence and stress management are subjective and personal to individuals which makes it difficult to generalize their relationships. Additionally, the limitation of this study is the number of papers selected and reviewed for analysis. Nevertheless, the study considered most academic journals, articles, and books without restrictions and provided a detailed literature review on the relationship between emotional intelligence and stress management which will be valuable for future researchers.

Conclusion

To conclude, the relationship between emotional intelligence and stress management has attracted the attention of practitioners, researchers, and academicians, especially in the past 2 decades. The definitions, concepts, and measurement techniques of EI and stress management are constantly evolving with rigorous research aiming to explore undiscovered topic. Emotional intelligence is a key component of stress management that facilitates protection against challenging situations by acting as a buffer or a moderating factor. The present review, also suggested that the established relationship between emotional intelligence and stress management provides a basis for common constructs such as quality leadership, effective coping styles, healthy communication/social skills, and efficient performance. This review tends to inspire researchers to conduct more high-quality research, leading to greater contributions to the fields of psychology, organizational behaviour, and human resource management (HRM). The future scope of this study lies in several unexplored or underexplored areas such as artificial intelligence, spirituality, anxiety management, and essentialism, which need in-depth investigation with stress management and emotional intelligence.

Data Availability Statement

All data supporting the findings of this study are included within the manuscript and its supplementary information files. No additional datasets were generated or analysed beyond those presented in this study. The supplementary files provide comprehensive details of the data utilized, ensuring full transparency and reproducibility.

Author Contributions

• Randhir Singh Ranta conceptualized the study and led the meta- analysis. He was responsible for the formulation of the research objectives, research design, and methodological framework. Additionally, he contributed to the critical interpretation of findings and supervised the entire research process.

• Kiran Chauhan contributed to the literature review and synthesis of previous studies, focusing on the theoretical perspectives of emotional intelligence and stress management. She played a significant role in data acquisition, interpretation, and drafting the manuscript.

• Vishal Kaushal was involved in data collection and statistical analysis. He assisted in compiling relevant articles, organizing data sets, and performing quantitative assessments to identify research gaps.

• Neevia Thalyari provided valuable input in the data analysis and the identification of key thematic areas. She contributed to drafting sections related to the organizational behavior perspective of emotional intelligence and stress management.

• Tanuj Sharma contributed to the critical analysis of the reviewed literature, focusing on the intersection of psychology and human resource management. He also assisted in drafting the discussion and conclusion sections.

• Aditi Sharma was involved in the systematic literature search and data validation. She contributed to manuscript revision, ensuring coherence and consistency, and assisted in compiling references

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