Exploring the Variation in Language Reading Materials Between Language-Related Majors and Other Fields of Study

Introduction

Higher education has recently witnessed a significant shift towards incorporating English-medium instruction as universities across Europe and East Asia strive to globalize curricula. This trend can be attributed to the internationalization strategies many institutions pursue to attract diverse student bodies and enhance the linguistic capabilities of local students [1]. As educational systems increasingly prioritize language development, particularly for second language learners and socioeconomically disadvantaged groups, there is a growing emphasis on linguistically responsive teaching. Research has highlighted notable gaps in pedagogical language knowledge among pre-service teachers, raising the imperative for comprehensive training in educational linguistics [2]. Concurrently, the call for interdisciplinary collaboration among teachers underscores the need for integrated approaches to language instruction [3]. This evolving context is also reflected in initiatives like Illinois State University's “Internationalize Your Major” program, which aims to integrate language studies into various academic disciplines, showcasing the value of bilingualism in today’s global economy [4]. These developments underscore the vital role of language education in fostering an inclusive and globally-oriented educational environment.

In contemporary educational policies and curricula across various countries, there is a growing emphasis on collaborative teaching among educators in diverse subject areas, particularly in science, social science, and language. This cooperation is especially relevant in addressing cross-curricular themes such as sustainable development. Research indicates that teachers from distinct disciplines contribute unique yet complementary perspectives and dimensions to teaching education for sustainable development. Language teachers, in particular, view language as a vital tool for collaboration within and across subjects, facilitating communication and cultural exchange. Their primary goal is to equip students with strong language skills that enhance their ability to connect with others and develop their identities in a global context. Language educators significantly bolster the collaboration between science and social science by fostering students' reading, writing, and presenting skills. As highlighted by Sund and Gericke, the emphasis of language teachers on the personal development of students underscores their focus on the why-dimension of teaching [5]. However, despite the potential advantages of this interdisciplinary approach, such as heightened language awareness and a more comprehensive understanding of languages, teachers often express the need for deeper forms of collaboration beyond merely sharing ideas and coordinating tasks. Additionally, a lack of familiarity with one another's subject curricula poses a barrier to effective teamwork, as Haukas and Drange pointed out, suggesting that a foundational understanding of the contents across subject areas is essential for fostering meaningful collaboration [3].

Language learning is a multifaceted process that requires the acquisition of vocabulary and pronunciation and a solid understanding of grammatical structures. As Ameen points out, gaining competency in a foreign language can be particularly challenging, and students often struggle with the complexities of grammar despite recognizing its importance [6]. This struggle is compounded by inadequate teaching techniques, which can negatively impact learners' attitudes and motivation toward grammar instruction. The relationship between students’ attitudes and achievements in foreign language learning is well-documented, illustrating that positive attitudes enhance motivation and lead to more effective communication in the target language.

Furthermore, the performative nature of language plays a significant role in social identity and intergroup relations. Woltran and Schwab emphasize that language serves not only as a means of communication but also as a tool for negotiating social memberships and expressing personal identities [7]. Their qualitative study on elementary school students in segregated language support programs reveals how perceptions surrounding language and nationality influence social interactions within educational settings. Additionally, the research by Karkkola et al. highlights the importance of interprofessional education and diverse experiences in shaping students’ perceptions of interdisciplinary cooperation [8]. The challenges of integrating multiple disciplinary approaches in environmental studies demonstrate the necessity for an interdisciplinary framework that empowers students to connect knowledge across fields. The need for interdisciplinary approaches in environmental studies and sciences is increasingly recognized as essential for effective research and education. Despite this awareness, integrating various disciplinary perspectives within undergraduate programs poses significant challenges. Faculty from different departments may struggle to find time or opportunities to collaborate and explore interdisciplinary methods, leading to a fragmented understanding of the concept [9].
 
In an increasingly globalized world, the importance of linguistic competence across various fields of study cannot be overstated. As institutions strive to internationalize their curricula, the variety and quality of language reading materials available to students have been scrutinized. While language-related majors often benefit from specialized resources tailored to enhance their linguistic skills, students in other disciplines may have limited access to similarly robust materials. This paper explores the variation in language reading resources between language-related majors and those in other fields of study. By analyzing the differing reading materials employed in these disciplines, insights can be gained into the broader implications of language education within the context of higher education. This research aims to shed light on the necessity of linguistically responsive teaching and the incorporation of diverse language materials in curricula across all fields. Through this exploration, we hope to identify opportunities for enhancing language support in non-language majors, ensuring that all students receive the comprehensive educational resources required to thrive in a multilingual and culturally diverse environment.

 Previous Research

In the realm of language acquisition, particularly in learning a second language, vocabulary plays a pivotal role that transcends mere word recognition. As discussed by van der Burght and Meyer, the process of lexical access is characterized by competition among words that fit the grammatical context being constructed [10]. This underscores the complex interplay between word class and lexical selection during the rapid formulation of speech. The importance of phonological representation in the early stages of foreign language vocabulary acquisition is highlighted by Hu, who emphasizes that a solid phonological form is essential for meaningful modification and specification of word-referent relationships [11]. The importance of vocabulary knowledge in second language acquisition emphasizes both its breadth and depth. Vocabulary breadth includes spelling, pronunciation, and basic meanings, while vocabulary depth encompasses more nuanced understanding, such as collocations and pragmatic functions [12]. Previous research has primarily focused on assessing vocabulary knowledge and its relationship to language proficiency and individual differences. However, there is a gap in investigating how a learner's depth of vocabulary knowledge can lag behind their breadth. The complexity of defining and measuring vocabulary depth has led to less attention in this area. With English emerging as a crucial international language in science, economy, and technology, the necessity of extensive vocabulary knowledge for effective communication becomes increasingly apparent. A solid vocabulary foundation is essential for successful language users, as it significantly impacts their ability to listen, speak, read, write, and translate. Vocabulary is not merely an adjunct to grammar; rather, it serves as the essential flesh of linguistic expression. In recent years, innovative teaching methods grounded in psychological and neuro-cognitive theories have been gaining traction, acknowledging that language learning is a multidimensional cognitive activity. This multifaceted approach addresses both the breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge, emphasizing that understanding a word involves more than just its meaning [13]. Ultimately, the commitment to vocabulary education as a key learning goal is vital for language learners striving for proficiency in a second language.

Grammar is an essential pillar of language, serving as the framework that governs the accuracy of both written and spoken communication. Defined as a collection of rules concerning the arrangement of words into coherent sentences and the transformation of words into different forms, grammar is fundamental to effective language use. The strategies employed in grammar learning are dynamic, teachable, and contextually adapted, aimed at promoting self-regulated and autonomous development of second language grammar. According to Mallahi, these strategies encompass not just memorizing rules but also ensuring competency in utilizing them appropriately in real-life scenarios through both explicit and implicit knowledge [14]. The instruction of grammar occupies a central role in language classrooms and has historically adhered to the implicit curriculum provided by textbooks. While various approaches to grammar teaching have emerged, many lack engagements with language theory or insights from second language acquisition research. As highlighted by Keßler and Lenzing, the importance of implicit grammar learning underscores the necessity of second language acquisition findings, revealing that practice alone may not guarantee mastery in language acquisition [15]. This ongoing discourse around grammar teaching comprises two principal methods: structural thinking and communicative grammar thinking. While the former emphasizes a product-oriented approach centered on grammatical structures and individual exercises, the latter focuses on enhancing communication skills through contextually relevant, student-centered exercises that promote interaction and authenticity in language use. In language education, the way grammar lessons are constructed can significantly influence students' mastery and application of the target language. Traditionally, grammar instruction has followed a structural approach, which focuses primarily on grammatical rules, sentence structure, and the role of teachers as authoritative figures in the learning process. This method, detailed by Endale and Temesgen, emphasizes a product- oriented model where students are often passive recipients of knowledge, limiting their communication skills [16]. However, there is a growing recognition of the need for a more interactive and communicative approach to grammar instruction. The communicative grammar principles advocate for teaching that integrates language rules with their function and meaning in real- life contexts, fostering a more dynamic and engaging learning environment. This shift towards a student-centered and process- oriented approach enhances understanding and promotes active participation and cooperative learning among students.

K. Pokorn et al. explore the causes of translation errors, specifically semantic and stylistic ones, in translator-training settings [17]. It assesses whether these errors result more from translation directionality (translation into L2 rather than L1) or underdeveloped thematic and information-mining competencies. They find a strong correlation between students’ L2 proficiency and their translation performance, indicating that language competence is the most significant factor affecting translation quality, irrespective of directionality. Semantic errors were more common in L1 to L2 translations with unfamiliar source texts, contrasting with L2 to L1 translations where errors were more frequent with familiar topics. This suggests students often underestimated their need for verification when dealing with known subjects, leading to misunderstandings. Their results regarding information-mining competence show that the best translation solutions usually emerged without external sources. However, students indicated that they would have benefited from immediate access to the Internet for parallel texts, as their limited searches were influenced by their perceived simplicity of the texts. The evolution of media accessibility has become an essential focus in enhancing the experience of diverse audiences, particularly through techniques like respeaking. Respeaking effectively bridges communication gaps in both live and pre-recorded television, enabling access for individuals with hearing impairments, language learners, and other groups. As highlighted by Dawson and Romero-Fresco, the emerging practice of interlingual respeaking builds upon intralingual methods, offering a promising new service to broaden accessibility [18]. The importance of proper training in this area cannot be overstated, as the skills required for interlingual respeaking differ significantly from those typically taught in traditional subtitling or interpreting courses. With the backing of the EU-funded project Interlingual Live Subtitling for Access (ILSA), there is a growing recognition of the need to adapt training frameworks to equip future respeakers with the necessary competencies to excel in this innovative field. This introduction sets the stage for exploring the key findings from the largest experiment conducted on interlingual respeaking, shedding light on the professional profiles best suited for this emerging practice. Despite the rise of machine translation (MT), the demand for quality human translation remains high. Translator trainers emphasize the importance of MT literacy for understanding its use, risks, and benefits. Training scenarios are proposed to enhance AI literacy among translation professionals [19]. For example, legal translation specialization and subject- matter knowledge significantly impact translation quality, with qualified legal translators performing the best, followed by law graduates, general translation graduates, and others. Pathways to legal translation practice should combine training in legal translation competence, which includes legal knowledge and translation methodology [20].

Academic writing serves a critical function in constructing and transforming knowledge, requiring students to master various skills to articulate their ideas effectively. According to Menke, faculty perceptions of student writing abilities emphasize essential competencies such as identifying appropriate sources, developing interpretations, synthesizing readings, and incorporating textual evidence with proper citations [21]. In contrast, students report strengths in organizing essays, thinking critically, and formulating strong theses while using appropriate grammar and vocabulary. However, the emergence of textism—the specialized language used in text messaging—has raised concerns about its potential impact on academic writing, particularly among younger generations. A recent study by Ambreen et al. explores the attitudes of undergraduate Saudi learners of English as a foreign language towards incorporating textism into their academic work [22]. The study involved a survey across various levels of language proficiency and analysis of 240 student essays, revealing that while students know appropriate contexts for textism, those with lower proficiency tend to use it more frequently than their more capable peers.

In college English assessments, the College English Test Band-4 (CET-4) and Band-6 (CET-6), administered by the National College English Testing Committee (NCETC), serve as critical measures of undergraduate English proficiency in China. Established in 1987, the CET has become the most widely taken English language test globally to ensure students achieve the requisite language standards outlined in the National College English Teaching Syllabuses (NCETS). The CET comprises four segments: writing, listening, reading comprehension, and Chinese-English translation. Since 2012, efforts to bolster test security have involved using multiple parallel forms for each administration of the exams, particularly in writing and translation, which feature three parallel versions. Parallel forms in testing refer to interchangeable versions that assess the same construct under identical conditions. Such forms are standard in prominent assessments like the International English Language Testing Service (IELTS), the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), and the Graduate Record Examination (GRE). This approach emphasizes the principle of test fairness, ensuring that all candidates have an equal opportunity to showcase their performance irrespective of the test form they receive. However, there is ongoing criticism regarding examination boards’ abilities to substantiate the comparability of difficulty across different forms, leading to skepticism about the consistency of difficulty levels for identical testing items [23]. This context sets the stage for a deeper exploration of the comparability of parallel translation tasks within the CET framework, contributing valuable insights for test designers and stakeholders. Recent survey results indicate that school status and classroom English learning practices influence students' perceptions of the test. Notably, students from more prestigious institutions tend to have more favorable views of NMET's validity and importance and a more critical view of its impact. Additionally, English teaching practices in the classroom correlate with heightened perceptions of NMET's validity, whereas dedicated test preparation leads to more pessimistic assessments of its impact [24].

In recent years, language study has increasingly recognized the importance of pragmatics, particularly in the context of English Language Teaching (ELT). Researchers Tajeddin and Malmir highlight that effective language use goes beyond mere knowledge of linguistic forms and meanings; it requires understanding language in specific contexts [25]. As students engage with language, their acquisition of pragmatic skills proves essential, underscoring the necessity of dedicated instruction in pragmatics. The importance of pragmatic competence has gained traction since the 1990s, focusing on various strategies developed to enhance learners’ abilities across memory-related, cognitive, metacognitive, compensatory, social, and affective dimensions. In addition to the pragmatic dimensions, Rubio-Fernandez, who introduces cultural evolutionary pragmatics, explores the relationship between language and social cognition in depth [26]. This framework examines how language reliance on social cognition, particularly in managing common ground across diverse languages and age groups, sheds light on proficient language use. Furthermore, the concept of interdisciplinary polysemy pushes the discourse further by addressing the nuances of word meanings across different fields. Geng and Liang emphasize how understanding these variations is critical for efficient communication in academic contexts, as terms like "model" can encompass vastly different meanings in science versus fashion [27]. As Pérez-Rodríguez et al. discussed, exploring scientific culture and its educational implications reveals a need for integrating sociocultural dimensions within scientific literacy efforts [28]. Their work advocates for educational approaches responsive to local contexts while remaining linked to global trends. Collectively, these discussions illuminate the intricate connections between language, culture, and cognition in educational settings, underscoring the need for a multifaceted approach to teaching and learning.

Previous studies often concentrate on specific language-related majors, such as English or linguistics, which can lead to a narrow understanding of language reading materials. This focus can result in neglecting a broader array of disciplines where language proficiency plays a crucial role. Fields like science, engineering, or social sciences might utilize language differently, and their unique needs regarding reading materials may need to be addressed. The research may miss critical insights into how language reading materials are employed across various academic contexts by not including a diverse range of disciplines. Many research projects rely on a relatively small or non-representative sample of language learners. If the sample used in these studies lacks diversity or does not encapsulate the experiences of the wider population, the findings become less reliable. Moreover, a lack of continuous and cumulative samples over multiple years means that the research might need to account for evolving language trends or changes in educational practices. This absence hinders a comprehensive understanding of language learners' experiences and may lead to conclusions that do not accurately represent a broader audience's challenges. Some researchers overlook the significant influence of external factors such as cultural, geographical, or institutional contexts. Variations in these factors can dramatically affect the availability and utilization of reading materials across different fields. For instance, certain regions may prioritize specific types of literature or language resources based on cultural relevance, while institutional policies can dictate the materials accessible to students. Failing to consider these external variables can lead to an incomplete picture of how language reading materials are selected and used. Many studies provide only a snapshot of language reading materials simultaneously, which fails to capture the dynamic nature of language education. The landscape of reading materials is continually evolving, influenced by technological changes, pedagogical approaches, and societal demands. Research that does not examine how reading materials have developed over time or how they might change in the future needs to fully address the needs of educators and students, leaving significant gaps in understanding.

This research seeks to bridge the gap between language studies and other disciplines, creating a more holistic understanding of how language reading materials differ across fields. By examining language’s role in disciplines outside traditional language studies, the research encourages cross-disciplinary dialogue and could lead to new methodologies for teaching language in context. The research can inform the development of more tailored educational strategies by highlighting different fields' unique needs and approaches regarding reading materials. Educators can leverage the findings to design curricula that better address the reading requirements of students from diverse majors, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of language education. The findings from this study could have direct implications for university curriculum development and resource selection. By understanding how reading materials vary by discipline, educators can make informed decisions about which texts to include in their programs, ensuring that students receive the most relevant and beneficial language resources. This study opens up new avenues for further exploration by pinpointing the variation in reading materials and recognizing the shortcomings in existing research. Future research could delve deeper into the implications of these variations, investigating how differences in reading materials affect language acquisition, learner engagement, and overall academic success across disciplines.

Date and Method

The sample: An analysis was conducted involving a total of 20,813 borrowers, consisting of 3,921 males and 16,892 females, along with a comprehensive review of 165,441 borrowing records from the Nanjing Normal University Library. This study encompasses the period from 2014 to 2023.

K-means clustering is a widely used method in data analysis for categorizing a set of observations into distinct groups based on their attributes. The objective is to group data points so that members of the same group (or cluster) share greater similarities than those in different clusters. The key variables include Frequencies, which denote the number of times books have been borrowed within a department; Borrowers, representing the total number of borrowers in the department; and Means, which relate to the average borrowing values per borrower. To conduct this analysis in SPSS, open the dataset, navigate to the top menu, click on Analyze, select Classify, and then choose K-means Cluster from the drop-down menu. Transfer selected variables (e.g., frequencies, borrowers, means) into the Variables box, specify two as the number of clusters, and click OK to execute the clustering analysis.

Additionally, 31,913 books were borrowed in the Chinese library classification category H (Language). By removing duplicates, the bibliography was classified into three categories: Category 1 includes works borrowed by both language-related majors and readers from other disciplines; Category 2 consists of works borrowed exclusively by language-related majors; and Category 3 features works borrowed solely by readers from other majors. The CNMARC and UNIMARC 6XX fields were extracted to analyze bibliographic themes.

Survival analysis is a set of statistical methods used to analyze time-to-event data, which focuses on the time it takes for a particular event of interest to occur. This type of analysis is particularly useful in fields such as medicine, engineering, and social sciences, where understanding durations until events, such as failure or death, is critical. The Kaplan-Meier estimator is a non- parametric statistic used to estimate the survival function from the observed data. It provides a way to visualize the proportion of subjects that survive past certain time points. In this analysis, the time considered is the “borrowed years,” representing the duration or timeline during which records were assessed for borrowing or non-borrowing. For the analysis conducted in 2023, the focus is on records about borrowing activities. Each record in the dataset can fall into two categories: "1" indicates that a record was borrowed (event occurred) and "0" indicates that a record was not borrowed (event censored). To explore any underlying gender differences in borrowing behavior, the analysis incorporates gender as a key factor in the evaluation: Male is coded as "1" and female is coded as "2". Input borrowed years for each record as the timeline. Use the status variable (1 for borrowed, 0 for not borrowed) to define if the event (borrowing) occurred. Segment the analysis based on gender to derive separate Kaplan-Meier survival curves for males and females. The detailed explanation illustrates the methodology and focus areas within the survival analysis process, highlighting the importance of time-to-event considerations and demographic factors like gender in understanding borrowing behaviors.

Binary logistic regression analysis aims to determine the factors significantly influencing an individual's likelihood of falling into a particular category (the dependent variable). This process will help identify which covariates predict category membership most. The dependent variable is category, this is a binary variable that indicates whether an individual belongs to a specific category (e.g., "â? " or "â?¡"). The covariates (independent variables) include:

Undergraduates: A binary indicator (1 = Yes, 0 = No) representing whether the individual is an undergraduate student.
Postgraduates: A binary indicator (1 = Yes, 0 = No) representing whether the individual is a postgraduate student.
Staff: A binary indicator (1 = Yes, 0 = No) representing whether the individual is a staff member of the institution.
Gender: A categorical variable representing the individual's gender (e.g., 1 = Male, 2 = Female).
Total Borrowing of 2014-2018: Continuous variable reflecting the total amount borrowed from 2014 to 2018.
Total Borrowing of 2019-2023: Continuous variable reflecting the total amount borrowed from 2019 to 2023.
Total Borrowing of 2014-2023: Continuous variable reflecting the total amount borrowed over the entire period from 2014 to 2023.

Methodological approach: Forward stepwise logistic regression. This approach helps to identify a parsimonious model that accurately predicts the dependent variable while retaining only the most impactful covariates. Based on the logistic regression results, the resulting model will reveal which covariates significantly predict the probability of an individual being part of the defined category. This information can provide valuable insights for decision-making and targeted interventions.

A loglinear analysis examines the interaction among the variables of category, gender, and undergraduate status in a dataset. Before conducting the loglinear analysis, weigh cases by Frequency (Total borrowing). This involves correctly setting the frequency counts so that each observation accurately reflects the total instances of borrowing. Navigate to Analyze and choose Loglinear from the dropdown options. Put the variables gender, category, and graduates into the Factor (s) column. Click on three variables separately and define the range. Check the option to view the estimates associated with each parameter. Click OK to execute the loglinear analysis. Then, wight cases by Frequency (Total borrowing), locate the menu bar, and click on Analyze. From the dropdown menu, select Loglinear and then click on General. Put the variables gender, category, and graduates into the Factor (s) column. Look for the Model option within the dialog box and click on it. A new set of options will appear. Click on Custom to specify the model structure. In the Factors section, ensure that the variables gender, category, and graduates are indicated. Next, find the Covariances column and ensure the same variables are populated. In the Terms in the Model column, confirm that the variables appear correctly as terms in the loglinear model. Click on the Interaction option, which will allow to create interaction terms for the variables gender, category, and graduates. Interactions help to understand how one variable's effect may depend on another variable's level. After specifying the interaction, click Continue to proceed to the following options. Click on the Estimates option in the Display column, fill in "0" in the Delta box in the Criteria column, and hit the OK button to conduct the loglinear analysis.
 

Results

 K-means Cluster
Figure 1 shows the K-means clustering results. Significant differences exist between the I and â?¡ clusters in the book borrowing frequencies, the borrowers, and the means. The I cluster contains three departments: Foreign Language, Literature, and International Culture Education. The â?¡ cluster contains 25 departments: Teacher Education, Educational Science, Ginling College, Journalism and Communication, Business, Social Development, Law, Public Administration, Geographic Science, Chemistry and Material Science, Strengthening Cultivation, Life Sciences, Art, Psychology, Computer and Electronic Information, Sports Science, Physical Science and Technology, Electrical and Automation Engineering, Energy and Mechanical Engineering, Mathematical Science, Environment, Marxism, Music, Food and Pharmaceutical Engineering, and Marine Science. Coincidently, I cluster departments are associated with language related majors.

Book Themes of Concern
Different focuses on language books are illustrated in Figure 2, which categorizes the themes into three distinct sections.

Common Themes of Concern
Figure 2 (a) highlights various prevalent themes integral to studying language in higher education institutions. These themes strongly emphasize English as a medium of instruction and communication. Additionally, the focus on higher education institutions indicates the importance of preparing students for level or entrance exams, which are often critical for academic progression. Key areas such as textbooks, vocabulary development, grammar analysis, writing skills, and translation practices are essential for language education. The examination of oral proficiency and the intricacies of linguistics further emphasizes the holistic approach to language learning. Moreover, including various languages—Japanese, Korean, Russian, and French—suggests a comparative analysis approach, recognizing the diverse linguistic landscape in language studies.

 Special Themes of Category I Concern
In Figure 2 (b), more specialized themes are addressed under Category I. This section focuses mainly on the Chinese language, incorporating various linguistic subfields such as lexicology (the study of word meanings and structures), phonetics (the sounds of human speech), and semantics (the meaning of words and phrases). The discussion extends to the analysis of rhyme, which is important in poetry and song, and the examination of historical linguistics through the study of medieval language. Considering grammatical components such as adverbs and prepositions highlights the nuanced understanding of language structure. Additionally, incorporating cognitive science indicates an interest in how language is processed in the mind, while topics like word order/formation and etymology (the study of word origins) contribute to a deeper comprehension of language evolution. Exegesis, the critical interpretation of texts, especially religious or literary, is also included, reflecting interdisciplinary connections within language studies.

Special Themes of Category II Concern
Figure 2 (c) delineates the themes categorized under Category II, which delve into specific resources and materials pertinent to English language instruction. Notably, there is a focus on English- Chinese comparative reading materials, which aids bilingual students in understanding linguistic and cultural differences. The emphasis on standardized tests such as IELTS and TOEFL points to the necessity of preparing students for international language proficiency assessments required for academic and professional purposes. This category also includes topics related to scientific journal articles, which underscore the importance of understanding academic writing conventions across disciplines. The broad range of subjects such as electronics, automation, oceanography, biology, environmental science, chemistry, business, law, advertising, accounting, economics, and psychology in English indicates a focus on interdisciplinary approaches to language application. These themes demonstrate the relevance of language proficiency across a spectrum of academic fields and career paths, highlighting the essential role of English in globalization and professional communication.

As illustrated in Figure 3 (a), the borrowing activity of language books among language-related professional readers (I) outpaces that of non-language professional readers (II). Examining the gender perspective, male readers in language-related fields exhibit a higher level of engagement in borrowing language books than their female counterparts (see Figure 3 (b)), and the borrowing activity among female readers shows a more pronounced decline. Conversely, for non-language majors, female readers demonstrate more significant activity in borrowing books than male readers (see Figure 3 (c)). In contrast, male readers experience a more rapid decrease in borrowing activity. Table 1 presents information regarding means and medians for survival time.

                                                              Table 1: Means and Medians for Survival Time

Regression Prediction
 
The binary logistic regression model's predicted percentage of correct classifications is 68.8%. Table 2. presents the variables included in the equation. Notably, the B values indicate that gender the and the status of undergraduate students significantly influence prediction of reader type. In contrast, the total borrowing from 2014 to 2018 is a less impactful variable, although it is still considered in the model.

                                                                           Table 2: Variables in the Equation

Interaction Among Variables
The loglinear analysis confirms the interaction among the variables of category, gender, and undergraduate status. The 'Deleted Effect' analysis shows a Chi-Square value of 4.346 with a significance level of 0.037 (p < 0.05). Figure 4 presents the Normal Q-Q plot of standardized residuals. This indicates that the study should incorporate the interaction term of Category * Undergraduate * Gender. Table 3. presents the parameter estimates derived from the general loglinear analysis. The interaction of â? *Male*Undergraduates is particularly influential.

                                                                         Table 3: Parameter Estimatesc,d

Correlation with COVID-19

Tables 4 and 5 present data that reveals a low contingency coefficient, which suggests that there is little to no correlation between the category of book borrowing and the impact of the COVID-19 outbreak. The low value of the coefficient points to a weak relationship, implying that fluctuations in book borrowing patterns cannot be confidently attributed to the presence or effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, the analysis indicates that any correlation observed is statistically insignificant. This lack of significance suggests that even if there are variations in book borrowing during the pandemic, these changes are likely due to unrelated factors rather than a direct consequence of the health crisis. It may point to the resilience of reading habits or the adaptability of borrowing practices, regardless of external challenges posed by the pandemic.

                                     Table 4: Category * Five Years Before and After COVID-19 Crosstabulation

                                                                          Table 5: Chi-Square Tests

Discussion

Higher educational institutions are crucial for a country’s social and economic development. Education is essential for national progress, with international universities attracting many foreign students due to their prestige and employment opportunities. The aims of internationalizing higher education include promoting multicultural education, enhancing the learning experiences of exchange students, improving teaching practices, increasing intercultural competencies, raising awareness of multiculturalism, addressing exchange student needs, and providing continuous staff training. The push factors influencing international students to study in China include the high cost of education, lack of courses in their home countries, and unemployment. At the same time, pull factors include scholarship opportunities, university alliances, global job prospects, university prestige, Chinese culture, and technological advancement. Challenges faced include professor- student relationships, language barriers, separation of students, and lack of internship opportunities [29]. International students face significant challenges transitioning from familiar environments to new physical, cultural, and linguistic landscapes. This adjustment can lead to feelings of profound isolation and intense depression, often exacerbated by communication difficulties, lack of social support, and cultural disruptions. The phenomenon of culture shock plays a critical role in shaping these experiences, negatively impacting the psychological and sociocultural adaptation of international students to their host environments. Research indicates that various dimensions of culture shock, such as feelings of loss, confusion regarding values and identity, and anxiety, can hinder effective coping strategies in the new environment. Factors influencing this experience include practical issues like accommodation and living costs, linguistic barriers, and emotional separations from family. Additionally, age-related variations suggest that older international students may face heightened challenges [30]. The unique struggles of ethnic minority students, particularly in contexts like Hong Kong, further complicate the landscape, where foreign language anxiety intertwines with motivation and cultural integration, as highlighted by Tai and Wang [31]. This multifaceted issue reveals not only the challenges faced by international students but also the crucial interplay of sociocultural factors in shaping their educational experiences.

Victoria et al. emphasize the necessity of shifting the understand- ing and teaching of English as a Lingua Franca from a primarily linguistic perspective to one that prioritizes intercultural communi-ca as a mode of intercultural interaction while retaining important linguistic aspects. Their position advocates that studies focusing on English as a Lingua Franca should prioritize contextualized en- counters and incorporate cultural competence alongside traditional linguistic skills. They call for enhanced teacher training programs that emphasize intercultural communication, the development of curricula that integrate these competencies, and ongoing profes- sional development for educators. They also suggest that future research should investigate adapting teaching materials to incorpo- rate intercultural elements better. Nketsia and Carroll highlight the urgent need to diversify the teaching workforce in OECD countries by actively recruiting and retraining foreign and migrant teachers [33]. Their study examines the experiences of six foreign lan- guage pre-service teachers during their initial teaching practicum in Australian mainstream classrooms, utilizing semi-structured in- terviews for data collection. The key findings reveal that, while these teachers possessed practical skills from community language schools, they encountered specific concerns and challenges during the practicum, particularly regarding behavior management. De- spite facing these difficulties, these teachers expressed confidence in teaching their native language due to their content familiarity. Nketsia and Carroll underline the potential of foreign language teachers to alleviate teacher shortages in Australia, noting that they bring valuable skills and linguistic expertise [33]. They advocate for developing retraining programs tailored to foreign language teachers' unique needs, including increased observation time and guided practice before the practicum. Additionally, they stress the importance of mentor support and opportunities for English lan- guage practice to enhance communication skills and confidence among these educators.

Language learning often transcends mere communication in an increasingly interconnected world, becoming a gateway to cultural engagement and identity formation. This dynamic is especially evident in languages other than English, where cultural attraction is pivotal in motivating learners. A notable example is the surge in interest in the Korean language, significantly driven by the global rise of K-pop and Korean pop culture. Recent studies, such as those conducted by Han et al., highlight the complex interplay between cultural allure and foreign language emotions, revealing that attitudes toward the language instructor and the culture are strong predictors of the language learning experience [34]. Moreover, within ethno-culturally pluralist frameworks, migrant youth emerge as passive recipients of diverse cultures and proactive agents of cultural adaptation. Al- deen and Mansouri emphasize how these individuals mobilize transcultural capital to navigate and negotiate their heritage while fostering social empowerment and intercultural engagement [35]. The empowering narratives described in their study illustrate the agency of migrant youth as they connect within varied local and global contexts, demonstrating an adaptive approach to cultural diversity. Additionally, understanding ancient languages, such as ancient Chinese, is crucial for unraveling the complexities of historical and cultural narratives. As outlined in recent research, the reliance on high-resource modern Chinese to interpret low- resource ancient Chinese often overlooks significant semantic and syntactic changes over time. Chan et al. point out that while ‘Chinese’ commonly refers to ‘Mandarin’ in the Anglosphere, it encompasses a broader range of Sinitic languages that deserve recognition and inclusion in language education discussions [36]. With diverse scripts and regional language varieties in play, teaching and learning Chinese as a foreign language require careful consideration of language characteristics and cultural contexts that shape them. This exploration is essential, as it offers insights into effective language pedagogy and the broader field of second language acquisition.

In the rapidly evolving information landscape, the ability to comprehend and synthesize multiple texts has become increasingly essential. As Mikami noted, engaging with various materials from various authors and publishers presents a unique challenge, necessitating that readers navigate inconsistencies and infer connections that may not be overtly stated [37]. This task proves particularly arduous for second language learners, who must cultivate practical comprehension skills to succeed academically and socially. Additionally, corpus linguistics plays a pivotal role in foreign language teaching, as emphasized by Gilquin [38]. By analyzing learner corpora, educators can glean valuable insights into the everyday challenges confronted by learners, thereby facilitating a more targeted and effective teaching approach. The interplay between second language acquisition research and foreign language teaching, augmented by data derived from corpora, establishes a robust framework for enhancing language education and addressing the complex challenges associated with multi-text comprehension. Collectively, these perspectives highlight the necessity of equipping learners with the skills required to navigate the intricacies of language across various contexts. The outlined selection criteria for effective teaching autonomous foreign language reading in technical universities are noteworthy. First-year students typically lack specialized knowledge; thus, introductory reading materials should not be overly complex. Text selection should transition from simple to complex throughout the initial stages, utilizing engaging and culturally relevant materials. By the third stage, text selection must align with students' professional interests, incorporating popular scientific texts that gradually increase linguistic complexity. Authentic materials native speakers produce enhance motivation as they reflect actual language use. Furthermore, texts should correspond appropriately to students' ages and psychological factors to foster effective engagement. Different reading skills, such as skimming, scanning, and detailed reading, should inform the choice of texts. Selected texts should present new, relevant information to enhance cognitive engagement and motivation. Additionally, reading materials must adequately prepare students for their future engineering careers, stimulating interest in professional terminology and topics. These criteria collectively aim to sustain motivation and promote purposeful learning in foreign language reading within technical university settings [39].

Understanding the motivations behind learners' engagement in foreign language acquisition is crucial for fostering effective educational environments. Scholars have established foundational frameworks identifying two primary types of motivation: instrumental and integrative. Instrumental motivation pertains to the pragmatic reasons for learning a language, such as enhancing career prospects. In contrast, integrative motivation reflects a genuine appreciation for the target culture and a desire to connect with its community. Additionally, the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivations adds another layer, where intrinsic motivation is driven by personal enjoyment and extrinsic motivation is influenced by external rewards. Research suggests that while these frameworks have been applied in various contexts, they may not fully capture the complexities of English as a foreign language learners’ motivation within the Chinese educational setting. Recent studies, such as those by Zhang and Wang, highlight seven distinct types of English learning motivation, including intrinsic interest, immediate achievement, and the pursuit of social responsibility, among others [40]. These diverse motivational orientations illustrate that learners often possess overlapping motivations, which can significantly influence their academic performance. For instance, English majors in China who exhibit heightened motivation tend to demonstrate more substantial academic results. However, the relationship between motivation and performance remains nuanced and influenced by additional factors. Moreover, the motivations driving teachers of English as a foreign language, ranging from relational to adaptive motivations, further complicate the language education landscape, emphasizing the role of external expectations and emotional labor in shaping teaching practices. Understanding these multifaceted motivations provides valuable insights into learner and teacher language education experiences [41].

The concepts of grit and emotional experiences in language learning have garnered increasing attention in recent educational research. Grit, characterized as sustained perseverance and passion for long-term goals, is becoming recognized for its significance in foreign language achievement. Recent findings suggest a positive correlation between language-specific grit and foreign language success, intended effort, and academic buoyancy [42]. Furthermore, anxiety in language speaking contexts has emerged as a critical factor influencing student performance, with research indicating that students with higher proficiency levels experience less speaking anxiety due to factors such as fear of mistakes and shyness [43]. Additionally, positive psychology has introduced new dimensions to understanding language learning, particularly examining foreign language enjoyment and foreign language learning boredom. These emotions are interconnected and significantly impact English language achievement, especially among ethnic minority learners in China, revealing that foreign language education serves as a strong predictor of success in language learning [44]. Together, these studies underscore the complex interplay of psychological factors in foreign language education, suggesting avenues for further exploration and practical implications for enhancing learner outcomes

Conclusion

The study presents a comprehensive analysis of the differences in book borrowing frequencies between language-related and non-language-related major clusters within higher education, emphasizing themes central to language studies. Key issues highlighted include the use of English as a medium of instruction, the necessity of equipping students for level or entrance examinations, and fundamental aspects of language education, encompassing textbooks, vocabulary, grammar, writing skills, and translation practices. The evaluation of oral proficiency is also addressed, along with a comparative analysis of multiple languages. Notably, the study identifies special themes of concern within language- related majors, concentrating primarily on the Chinese language and various linguistic subfields such as lexicology, phonetics, semantics, and historical linguistics. It further explores cognitive science elements, grammatical components, and exegesis, thereby indicating interdisciplinary connections within language studies. Similarly, special themes relevant to non-language-related majors focus on resources for English language instruction, particularly English-Chinese comparative reading materials and standardized tests such as IELTS and TOEFL. The significance of academic writing across disciplines is underscored, along with the critical role of language proficiency in diverse fields, highlighting English's importance in globalization and professional communication.

The findings of this study offer valuable insights into the borrowing behaviors of language books among different reader demographics, particularly comparing language-related professionals with non-language professionals. The analysis reveals a significant discrepancy; language-related professional readers exhibit a greater inclination to borrow these materials. This trend is further nuanced by gender dynamics, with male readers in language-related fields demonstrating a higher level of engagement in borrowing compared to their female counterparts, who show a notable decline in borrowing habits. In contrast, among non-language professional readers, females surpass males in borrowing activity, although a more rapid decrease in male borrowing rates is observed. Gender and undergraduate status are critical predictors of borrowing behavior, highlighting their essential roles in understanding these dynamics. General loglinear analysis investigating the interaction among these variables reveals a complex relationship between category, gender, and undergraduate status. The pronounced interaction of language-related, male, and undergraduate readers suggests that tailored strategies may be necessary to effectively support these specific reader groups.
 
An intriguing facet of the study is its examination of the relationship between borrowing patterns and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. The study finds a low contingency coefficient, which indicates a weak correlation between book borrowing categories and the pandemic's influence. This finding challenges the assumption that borrowing behaviors are directly affected by external crises, suggesting instead that changes in reading habits during this time may arise from other, unrelated factors. The statistical insignificance of any observed correlations further implies that the resilience of reading habits and adaptability in borrowing practices may have mitigated the effects of such an unprecedented event as the COVID-19 pandemic.

The insights derived from this study underscore the importance of further research to investigate the underlying motivations and environmental influences shaping borrowing behaviors and assess the long-term effects of the pandemic on reading habits across various demographic groups. A deeper understanding of these dynamics will be crucial for libraries, educational institutions, and publishers in adapting their strategies to meet the evolving needs of readers in a post-pandemic context.

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